(2015). Invest. Notably, apart from being only a potential source of disease and contamination, the skin microbiota also contributes to the protective functions of the human skin in many ways. There are now many evidences that viruses represent a significant part of the cutaneous flora as demonstrated by the asymptomatic carriage of … Nature 548, 407–412. Dermatol. In a randomized and double-blind trial, the cream was applied to 11 AD subjects who were not able to dampen S. aureus before accepting Gallo's intervention. Rev. 124, 931–938. Genetic architecture of acne vulgaris. Sci. doi: 10.1016/j.jaci.2018.11.015, Palmer, C. N., Irvine, A. D., Terron-Kwiatkowski, A., Zhao, Y., Liao, H., Lee, S. P., et al. In this review, we summarize the interactions between dysbiosis and the cutaneous disorders, including homeostasis and dysbiosis of skin microbiota, microbial composition in skin diseases, and the mechanisms and applications of reversing or ameliorating the dysbiosis by the targeted manipulation of the skin microbiota, which may contribute to aid development of therapeutic modality for ecology-based therapy. 138, 1233–1236. The microbiome and its impact on food allergy and atopic dermatitis in children. The human microbiome is the aggregate of all microbiota that reside on or within human tissues and biofluids along with the corresponding anatomical sites in which they reside, including the skin, mammary glands, placenta, seminal fluid, uterus, ovarian follicles, lung, saliva, oral mucosa, conjunctiva, biliary tract, and gastrointestinal tract. Med. Association between Staphylococcus aureus nasal carriage and disease phenotype in patients affected by systemic lupus erythematosus. Nature 553, 427–436. In addition, reintroduction of a cocktail of microbiota has a synergistic effect on ameliorating the ecology of skin microbial communities. The severity of AV clinical symptoms depends on the number of non-inflammatory lesions (closed and open comedones), inflammatory lesions (pustules and papules), and the residual pathology of nodules and cysts (Shalita, 2004; Ghodsi et al., 2009). The recently launched Human Microbiome Project aims to characterize the human microbiota and its role in health and disease ().The study reported here contributes to the broad goals of this project and may have implications for the future treatment of skin disorders. Amphibians have microbiota on their skin. Epub 2020 May 17. Lancet 387, 40–52. doi: 10.1038/jid.2009.47, Gonzalez, M. E., Schaffer, J. V., Orlow, S. J., Gao, Z., Li, H., Alekseyenko, A. V., et al. B., Uberoi, A., and Grice, E. A. Paetzold et al. Are the skin products we're using hurting the cultivation of good bacteria? JAMA Dermatol. Atopic dermatitis: the skin barrier and beyond. doi: 10.1038/nature12171, Fitz-Gibbon, S., Tomida, S., Chiu, B. H., Nguyen, L., Du, C., Liu, M., et al. doi: 10.1099/mic.0.28048-0, Bosi, E., Monk, J. M., Aziz, R. K., Fondi, M., Nizet, V., and Palsson, B. O. Nat. Whole metagenome profiling reveals skin microbiome-dependent susceptibility to atopic dermatitis flare. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-394447-4.20083-7, Oh, J., Byrd, A. L., Deming, C., Conlan, S., Program, N. C. S., Kong, H. H., et al. Cell. Skin microbiota of first cousins affected by psoriasis and atopic dermatitis. These are generally Gram-positive bacteria such as Clostridium, but sometime… (2006). Invest. Mol. USA.gov. Copyright © 2020 Zhou, Shi, Ren, Tan, Liu and Liu. Otto et al. There are present different types of bacteria on our skin surface. Enter HMP1. 143, 155–172. doi: 10.1016/j.jaci.2017.01.008, Bitschar, K., Sauer, B., Focken, J., Dehmer, H., Moos, S., Konnerth, M., et al. The skin microbiota is indispensable for host skin health, as dermatological conditions have been linked to the alteration of the cutaneous microbiota [ … Most are found in the superficial layers of the epidermis and the upper parts of hair follicles . Current understanding of the cutaneous microbiota is based on sampling the outermost layers of the epidermis, while the microbiota in the remaining skin layers has not yet been fully characterized. Here, we focus on members of the healthy human skin microbiota, which we consider as those taxa that stably reside (intransient) on the normal skin in the majority of humans. Propionibacterium acnes strain populations in the human skin microbiome associated with acne. Figure 2. Dermabacter Certain bacteria are referred to as transient, since it is only possible to culture them from skin samples now and then. (2017). Although a number of animal CoNS species have been identified to have inhibitory effects on S. aureus quorum sensing, there are still few studies on quorum sensing between CoNS species on human skin. Nakatsuji et al. Genome Res. (2018). (2016). doi: 10.1128/mSystems.00293-19, Szegedi, A., Dajnoki, Z., Biro, T., Kemeny, L., and Torocsik, D. (2019). Dermatol. The human skin is densely colonized by a highly diverse microbiota comprising all three domains of life. Med. Genus-wide comparative genomics of malassezia delineates its phylogeny, physiology, and niche adaptation on human skin. Microbiol. Additionally, a recent study shows that Malassezia globosa can secrete protease that attenuates S. aureus biofilm associated with increased severity and barrier dysfunction of the progression of AD (Li et al., 2018). doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1610020, Sohn, E. (2018). In this study, we performed metagenomic profiling on skin swabs collected from the forearm (antecubital fossa) of … now identify an antibiotic called cutimycin produced by a ubiquitous member of the human skin and nasal microbiota, Cutibacterium acnes . Rev. The principal intention was to provide an overview of present and future concepts to use skin models in microbiota analyses. Small CRISPR RNAs guide antiviral defense in prokaryotes. Therefore, finding out the extent to which microbial composition at the site of skin disorders is deciphered is remarkably important for ecology-based therapy. A single application of S. epidermidis strain producing 6-HAP to mouse impaired the incidence of ultraviolet-induced skin tumors. Microbes Infect. Based on analyses at the genus and species levels using 16S rRNA sequencing, 8 of the 20 prevalent genera in most of the AD patients and 7 of the 15 species identified had distinct difference in relative abundance between children and adults in both lesional and non-lesional skin of AD (Shi et al., 2016). In a separate study, whole metagenome sequencing analysis that compared the non-flare skin of AD adults with that of a control cohort revealed skin microbiome-dependent susceptibility in AD flares and identified a distinct AD-associated skin microbiota signature, which had an enrichment of Streptococcus and Gemella reported to be originally enriched in children and a depletion of Dermacoccus often present on healthy human skin (Oh et al., 2012; Chng et al., 2016; Kennedy et al., 2017). doi: 10.1038/nature14052, Nakatsuji, T., Chen, T. H., Butcher, A. M., Trzoss, L. L., Nam, S. J., Shirakawa, K. T., et al. Nanotechnology intervention of the microbiome for cancer therapy. Copyright (2013) The Society for Investigative Dermatology, Inc. Microbiome 7:95. doi: 10.1186/s40168-019-0709-3, Paharik, A. E., Parlet, C. P., Chung, N., Todd, D. A., Rodriguez, E. I., Van Dyke, M. J., et al. (2019). In longitudinal surveys of a cohort of pediatric AD patients, shotgun metagenomic sequencing of clinical skin sample throughout the disease course revealed that bacterial communities shifted markedly in this cohort, although the fungal or viral components had no significant differences over time (Byrd et al., 2017). doi: 10.1101/gr.131029.111, Kong, H. H., and Segre, J. 30, 2038–2047. Normal Microbiota of the Skin. Healthy human skin microbiome has a huge impact on how our skin looks and feels. J. For example, individuals with less severe AD flares had relative abundances of 3.8 ± 1.7% S. aureus with 13 ± 3.9% S. epidermidis; individuals with strong AD flares had relative abundances of 34 ± 8.7% S. aureus with 7.4 ± 4.2% S. epidermidis averaged across all sites (Byrd et al., 2017). LS, YR, and XT carried out revisions of the manuscript. This skin microbiota is of high importance for human health and well-being. Evol. The skin is an effective physical barrier against microbial invasion. Primers 4:1. doi: 10.1038/s41572-018-0001-z, Weidinger, S., and Novak, N. (2016). Skin microbiome modulation induced by probiotic solutions. (2016). characterized fungi on healthy human skin using sequencing of the ITS region and showed the greatest diversity of fungi was found on the feet, with intermediate levels of diversity on the hand and forearm . 175, 687–695. First-in-human topical microbiome transplantation with Roseomonas mucosa for atopic dermatitis. Furthermore, it is not clear how microbiome transplantation shapes microbial communities on diseased skin via cell-to-cell communication, but the complexity of communication from intraspecies to interkingdom dense network does play an important role in maintaining homeostasis of the cutaneous ecosystem. Am. 47, 1449–1456. Genome Res. Nat. (2013). Normal Flora of Human Body Normal Flora of Skin. Allergy 14:2. doi: 10.1186/s12948-016-0038-z, Dreno, B., Araviiskaia, E., Berardesca, E., Gontijo, G., Sanchez Viera, M., Xiang, L. F., et al. Disturbances of the skin microbiota have been directly correlated with multiple diseases. 137, 1213–1214. The human skin microbiome plays an important role in both health and disease. (2008). Sci. Dysbiosis in acne vulgaris (AV) is characterized by a decrease in the proportion of C. acnes strains RT6 and the significant increase in the proportion of C. acnes strains RT4, RT5, RT7, RT8, RT9, and RT10. Acne vulgaris. Many less severe, but negatively perceived cosmetic skin phenomena are linked with skin microbes, too. Furthermore, S. epidermidis decreases the anionic charge of its surface and membrane by an AMP-sensing system called aps, thereby avoiding harmful effects on itself via decreased attraction or repulsion of human AMPs (Otto, 2009). Another clue found a decreased relative abundance of Malassezia as the population of S. aureus rise in AD flares (Chng et al., 2016). For bacterial communities, investigation of AD flares demonstrated a decline in the total bacterial diversity and the dramatic increase in relative abundance of specific staphylococcal species S. aureus in the flare vs. the healthy (or post-flare) state (Figure 2). 35, 1069–1077. Nat. The development of high-throughput microbial genomic sequencing technique, including amplicon sequencing and whole genome sequencing (shotgun metagenomic sequencing), makes it possible to thoroughly characterize skin microbiota constituents (Byrd et al., 2018; Grogan et al., 2019). doi: 10.1007/s10096-016-2647-3, Totté, J. E. E., van der Feltz, W. T., Hennekam, M., van Belkum, A., van Zuuren, E. J., and Pasmans, S. G. M. A. |, Concluding Remarks and Future Perspectives, https://doi.org/10.3389/fcimb.2020.570261, Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). In addition, skin microorganisms, in particular on the human hands, are crucial for the field of hygiene research. Background: Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are of environmental and public health concerns and contribute to adverse skin attributes such as premature skin aging and pigmentary disorder. HHS Rep. 6:39491. doi: 10.1038/srep39491, Belkaid, Y., and Segre, J. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(15)00388-8, Tomich, M., Planet, P. J., and Figurski, D. H. (2007). Sebaceous sites such as the face and torso were dominated by species of the Cutibacterium (formerly Propionibacterium) (Scholz and Kilian, 2016) and Staphylococcus genera, whereas moist areas such as the elbow and knee creases were dominated by Corynebacterium and Staphylococcus species (Grice et al., 2009). NIH Human Microbiome Project. The tad locus: postcards from the widespread colonization island. J. Syst. (2014). Immunol. Med. Dermatol. Epub 2020 Nov 7. In a more recent study, Williams et al. Our company has developed ready-to-use non-invasive collection kits to analyze the lipids and biomarkers of the skin surface from your samples or from those of your clinical center. (2018) tested the therapeutic potential of topical live R. mucosa in humans for the first time. doi: 10.1111/ajd.12371, Chen, Y. E., Fischbach, M. A., and Belkaid, Y. (2019). Recently, Nakatsuji et al. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1102938108, Grice, E. A., Kong, H. H., Conlan, S., Deming, C. B., Davis, J., Young, A. C., et al. Acad. Microbiol. 2018 Jan 24;553(7689):427-436. doi: 10.1038/nature25177. Skin microbiome surveys are strongly influenced by experimental design. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1117018109, Scholz, C. F. P., and Kilian, M. (2016). PLoS Genet 11:e1005614. Infect. doi: 10.1016/j.jid.2016.11.045, Garmhausen, D., Hagemann, T., Bieber, T., Dimitriou, I., Fimmers, R., Diepgen, T., et al. Trends Microbiol. doi: 10.1038/d41586-018-07432-8, Song, W., Anselmo, A. C., and Huang, L. (2019). Lugdunin amplifies innate immune responses in the skin in synergy with host- and microbiota-derived factors. (2017). (2015). J. A. The human skin microbiome plays an important role in both health and disease. Immunol. Staphylococcus epidermidis–the 'accidental' pathogen. Furthermore, Staphylococcus epidermidis, the most prominent of the coagulase-negative Staphylococcus (CoNS) species (Sohn, 2018), which is generally beneficial to the host, appears unexpectedly in AD flares and predominates in less severe flares (Byrd et al., 2017), implying that a disease could arise from dysbiosis of the microbial community without an invading pathogen prevailing in the community. (2012). doi: 10.1038/nrmicro2182, Otto, M., Echner, H., Voelter, W., and Gotz, F. (2001). Distinct strains of Propionibacterium acnes induce selective human beta-defensin-2 and interleukin-8 expression in human keratinocytes through toll-like receptors. The composition of human skin microbiota is shaped by biogeography of the skin site including oily, moist, dry, and foot sites. Soc. 132, 933–939. (2015). This skin microbiota is of high importance for human health and well-being. What is the human microbiome?. Moreover, reintroduction of living microbiota induces keratinocytes and sebocytes to secrete human AMPs (H-AMPs) to directly inhibit pathogens. (2018) found that a strain of S. epidermidis, which is common on human skin, produces 6-N-hydroxyaminopurine (6-HAP) that has selective antiproliferative activity against tumor lines by interfering with the essential process of DNA replication but did not inhibit primary keratinocytes. Except for the constitutively expressed AMPs, others can be agitated by cues from certain members of the skin microbiota, a phenomenon known as heterologous protection. (2001) and Olson et al. doi: 10.1126/science.1260144, Bieber, T., D'Erme, A. M., Akdis, C. A., Traidl-Hoffmann, C., Lauener, R., Schappi, G., et al. The human skin is a complex ecosystem that hosts a heterogeneous flora. Interspecies interactions influence the composition of microbial communities, but their mechanisms are poorly understood. There is no doubt that the composition of the skin microbiota can shift dramatically during the disease progression (Kong et al., 2012). European consensus conference on faecal microbiota transplantation in clinical practice. doi: 10.1126/scitranslmed.aat8329, Wu, G., Zhao, H., Li, C., Rajapakse, M. P., Wong, W. C., Xu, J., et al. Colonization is driven by the ecology of the skin surface, which is highly variable depending on topographical location, endogenous host factors a … Commun. (2015). Malassezia is a typically dominant skin-dwelling fungal class comprising 17 species and linked with AD (Sohn, 2018). Skin commensal malassezia globosa secreted protease attenuates Staphylococcus aureus biofilm formation. There are huge numbers of microorganisms — the total microbial cell count in and on our bodies is similar to the number of human … This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). Transl. Search by expertise, name or affiliation. A recent comprehensive review proposes a new concept that AV may be a naturally developing, transient inflammatory interplay of adolescent facial skin with its new microbiota (C. acnes), replacing a state of previous skin homeostasis in childhood (Szegedi et al., 2019). In contrast to transplantation of a single microbiota, reintroduction of a cocktail of microbiota has a greater advantage in the level of engraftment. However, the diversity and relative abundance of the body's microbial communities vary in both the individual and the physiology of the skin sites, which has been categorized into four major skin microenvironment: oily, moist, dry, and foot (Figure 1; Belkaid and Segre, 2014; Byrd et al., 2018). 2019 Feb 1;95(2):fiy241. 11:eaat8329. Microbiol. doi: 10.1016/j.jid.2017.11.034, Lichtenberger, R., Simpson, M. A., Smith, C., Barker, J., and Navarini, A. doi: 10.1016/j.tim.2019.01.008, Paternoster, L., Standl, M., Waage, J., Baurecht, H., Hotze, M., Strachan, D. P., et al. J. (2013). 128, 1863–1866. doi: 10.1186/2045-7022-4-33, Scharschmidt, T. C., and Fischbach, M. A. Sfriso R, Egert M, Gempeler M, Voegeli R, Campiche R. Int J Cosmet Sci. Dermatol. doi: 10.1038/nature18634, Keywords: human skin microbiota, cutaneous disorders, dysbiosis, ecology-based therapy, applications, Citation: Zhou H, Shi L, Ren Y, Tan X, Liu W and Liu Z (2020) Applications of Human Skin Microbiota in the Cutaneous Disorders for Ecology-Based Therapy. Population genetic analysis of Propionibacterium acnes identifies a subpopulation and epidemic clones associated with acne. However, the well-controlled but delicate balance can be perturbed by alterations in the skin microbial communities, namely, dysbiosis, often due to commensals defeated by pathogens competing for space and nutrients, which leads to the occurrence of multiple cutaneous disorders. Michalik M, Samet A, Podbielska-Kubera A, Savini V, Międzobrodzki J, Kosecka-Strojek M. Ann Clin Microbiol Antimicrob. Allergy Clin. 2013 Feb;8(2):209-22. doi: 10.2217/fmb.12.141. Previous studies have illustrated that dysbiosis may lead to carcinogenesis. (2018). Bacteria. Please enable it to take advantage of the complete set of features! However, the distributions of distinct C. acnes strain populations in acne and normal skin are dramatically different. The evolution of the use of faecal microbiota transplantation and emerging therapeutic indications. Adv. doi: 10.1136/gutjnl-2016-313017, Casagrande, B. F., Fluckiger, S., Linder, M. T., Johansson, C., Scheynius, A., Crameri, R., et al. Venereol. J. A temporary modulation of the skin microbiota population at the species and strain level is feasible in patients with skin disorders without an adverse event. (2008). Many less severe, but negatively perceived cosmetic skin phenomena are linked with skin microbes, too. (2019). Human skin microbiota has been described as a "microbial fingerprint" due to observed differences between individuals. Most microbiome studies concentrate on understanding bacterial composition, but the microbes present in human skin habitats are not limited to bacteria. Allergy Clin. 2020 Jun 4;19(1):26. doi: 10.1186/s12941-020-00367-x. Application of a single of microbiota such as S. hominis secretes microbiota-produced antimicrobial peptides (MP-AMPs) or other metabolites [such as autoinducing peptides (AIPs)] to inhibit pathogen S. aureus. Long believed to represent mainly a source of infection, the human skin microbiota is nowadays well accepted as an important driver of human (skin) health and well-being. Skin microbiota-host interactions. N. Engl. WL and ZL conceived the structure of the review. Future Microbiol. Clin. The skin microbiome is different in pediatric versus adult atopic dermatitis. We examine roles for skin microbes within this ecosystem and how these roles present risk as … doi: 10.1007/s11046-008-9100-9, Shalita, A. R. (2004). Comparing the makeup of the skin microbial communities between control and AV-prone groups by next-generation sequencing technology, the results demonstrated the relative abundance of C. acnes tending to be consistent in both, which also implied that the skin microbiota might not play a role in AV after all (Sohn, 2018). Proc. 57, 122–127. Some of these are also residents of your gut microbiome, including Staph, Strep, and Candida species. Invest. 9:eaah4680. A., Irvine, A. D., and Foster, T. J. Phenotype and antimicrobial activity of Th17 cells induced by propionibacterium acnes strains associated with healthy and acne skin. The term skin flora (also commonly referred to as skin microbiota) refers to the microorganisms which reside on the skin, typically human skin. Genome Med. Dermatol. Genet. JAMA Dermatol. The interspecies interaction largely depends on antimicrobial CoNS strains producing novel AMPs (such as lantibiotic, bacteriocin, and lugdunin) and synergizing with microbiota-produced AMPs and the human AMP LL-37 or/and DCD-1(L) to selectively kill or inhibit S. aureus (Figure 4; Lee et al., 2008; Nakatsuji et al., 2017; Bitschar et al., 2019). However, its expansion in certain contexts is able to counteract promptly the equilibrium state (Parlet et al., 2019), ultimately resulting in several skin disorders such as atopic dermatitis (AD) (Kobayashi et al., 2015) and systemic lupus erythematosus (Conti et al., 2016). doi: 10.1186/gm378, Oh, J., Freeman, A. F., Program, N. C. S., Park, M., Sokolic, R., Candotti, F., et al. Rev. The skin condition is clinically characterized by intense pruritus, relapsing eczematous lesions, and a fluctuating course (Eyerich et al., 2015; Geoghegan et al., 2018), whose manifestations not only have a substantial effect on quality of life by sleep deprivation and profoundly diminished self-esteem (Simpson et al., 2016; Weidinger et al., 2018) but also increase the risk of infection and other atopic disorders (Thaçi et al., 2016). 40, 873–876. Streptolysin S and necrotising infections produced by group G streptococcus. Microbiology 151, 2551–2561. NLM (2012). (2019).  |  Of note, heterogeneous S. epidermidis strain communities in less severe AD flares are genomically similar to nosocomial strains that are a leading cause of mortality of sepsis in newborn infants (Meisel et al., 2016). The human skin microbiome. 4:eaao4502. Front Microbiol. The skin microflora are microorganisms that are resident on our skin. Several notable observations that the composition of the skin microbiota in acne is disturbed highlight the importance of studying diseases in the context of the microbial dysbiosis (Lomholt and Kilian, 2010; Fitz-Gibbon et al., 2013). Identification of a streptolysin S-associated gene cluster and its role in the pathogenesis of Streptococcus iniae disease. CRISPR/cas loci of type II Propionibacterium acnes confer immunity against acquisition of mobile elements present in type I P. acnes. As a result, the novel concept of restoring the composition and functionality of the skin microbiota to the previous indigenous state by targeted manipulation of the skin microbiota, on the basis of the skin ecosystem, has been proposed as a potential therapeutic approach in the last few years (Paetzold et al., 2019; Stacy and Belkaid, 2019). The full length of AIP is composed of 7–12 amino acids with the last 5 amino acids forming a cyclic (thio)lactone ring between the C-terminal and a cysteine or serine side chain (Janek et al., 2016; Zipperer et al., 2016; Nakatsuji et al., 2017). doi: 10.1016/j.ddmec.2012.12.003, Schoch, C. L., Seifert, K. A., Huhndorf, S., Robert, V., Spouge, J. L., Levesque, C. A., et al. doi: 10.1016/j.jid.2017.07.842, PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar, Allegretti, J. R., Mullish, B. H., Kelly, C., and Fischer, M. (2019). In an open-label phase I/II safety and activity trial in 10 adult and 5 pediatric patients, topical microbiome transplantation with R. mucosa led to a prominent reduction in AD severity and S. aureus burden without any negative reactions or treatment complications. Percentage of relative abundance of diverse C. acnes strains in the pilosebaceous units between acne patients and normal individuals. Compared to traditional antibiotic therapy of directly eradicating pathogens by brute force, the advantage of this methodology is not only to reduce the formation of drug-resistant bacteria but also to avoid destroying the indigenous microbiota of patients. Human skin is the largest epithelial surface for interaction with microbes. Natl. Akin to the therapeutic principle appearing in the gut, manipulating microbiota to modulate dysbiosis has been successful in fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) for the control of the antibiotic-resistant bacteria Clostridioides difficile (formerly Clostridium difficile) infection (Allegretti et al., 2019) and more recently in leveraging probiotics such as Lactobacillus plantarum to prevent neonatal sepsis (Panigrahi et al., 2017). The harsh physical landscape of skin, particularly the desiccated, nutrient-poor, acidic envi … A survey of the cultivable bacteria on human skin was undertak … Human skin microbiota is a rich source of bacteriocin-producing staphylococci that kill human pathogens FEMS Microbiol Ecol. One cue is that Malassezia peaks in greasy skin in infants or adolescence, but AD becomes less common (Havlickova et al., 2008; Seebacher et al., 2008). Acad. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0012277, Lomholt, H. B., Scholz, C. F. P., Bruggemann, H., Tettelin, H., and Kilian, M. (2017). Immunol. The skin microbiota is the term used to describe the millions of different organisms – bacteria, viruses and fungi – that live on Human Skin. J. 10, e83–e89. With increasing identification of highly personalized skin microbial communities (Oh et al., 2016), the presence of specific strains in patients emphasizes the importance of the individuality in the disease process and in response to diagnosis and treatment, which may provide an opportunity for precision medicine in the field of skin microbiota. 138, 316–324. Until recently, the diversity of the cutaneous microbiota was mainly investigated for bacteria through culture based assays subsequently confirmed by molecular techniques. It reached a milestone in 2012 when it published initial results. Cutaneous microbiome studies in the times of affordable sequencing. J. doi: 10.1126/science.aat4326, Summerfield, A., Meurens, F., and Ricklin, M. E. (2015). 155, 425–434. High frequency and diversity of antimicrobial activities produced by nasal staphylococcus strains against bacterial competitors. (2012). 10:2730. doi: 10.1038/s41467-019-10646-7, Bolotin, A., Quinquis, B., Sorokin, A., and Ehrlich, S. D. (2005). Human skin is colonized by a complex microbial community, considered for a long time as dominated by Gram-positive bacteria such as staphylococci, micrococci, corynebacteria, Propionibacterium spp., Brevibacterium spp., and members of the genus Acinetobacter being the most frequently encountered Gram-negative bacteria in human skin microbiota. Activity of Th17 cells induced by Propionibacterium acnes induce selective human beta-defensin-2 and interleukin-8 expression in skin. By C. acnes, but negatively perceived cosmetic skin phenomena are linked with skin microbiota characteristics study reported here to... Strains identifies strain-specific metabolic capabilities linked to pathogenicity host- and microbiota-derived factors:427-436. doi: 10.1128/IAI.70.10.5730-5739.2002, Gallo R.. 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